Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract This article explores how and why English armies changed between the mid-fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. It thereby addresses a topic that has hitherto not received the attention it deserves, especially the issue of change and continuity across the late medieval and early modern divide. Administrative sources, such as indentures of war and inventories, are examined to trace changes in the terminology used to describe soldiers, the weaponry with which they were equipped and ratios of different types of combatants. This evidence is used to demonstrate that the role of men-at-arms and archers changed markedly over the course of the fifteenth century, with the latter evolving into a form of hybrid infantry. The reign of Henry VII was especially significant, with key developments including the emergence of new categories of soldiers. Contrary to past assessments, the bill only became the preferred English melee weapon in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, with the pike used alongside it in large numbers. European influences were important in driving these changes, which were integrated into a distinctive English style of warfare.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".