Hydration Caves in the Site of Weathering Anhydrite-Gypsum Rocks at Dingwall (Nova Scotia, Canada)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
One of the less known processes responsible for the formation of caves is gypsification or hydration of anhydrite. This process, according to reaction: CaSO4 + 2H2O = CaSO4∙2H2O, can lead to a volume increase of the rock and is the reason for generation of numerous deformations. In the weathering zone local detachment and uplift of the surface layer of the rock are one of the most common. The detached layer rises up and creates peculiar hydration forms of relief. They include dome-shaped forms, tepee-shaped forms (showing triangular outline in cross-section) and elongated ridges. All of them have a height up to more than 2 m and dimensions in a plan view up to several or several dozen meters. A rock void is created under the elevated rock layer. To the largest voids or chambers an adult person can enter, when their minimum size is about 0.30 m [1, p. 3]. Such voids represent hydration caves (Quellungshöhlen in German) – a very rare type of caves recognized only in a few places around the world. The most numerous group of caves occurs in the abandoned Carboniferous gypsum quarry at Dingwall (in Canadian Nova Scotia), studied by the Authors. At the bottom of the quarry, 77 hydration dome- and tepee-shaped forms have been documented, and nearly forty caves and rock shelters have been identified in theirs interiors. The length of the rock voids ranges from 0.7 to 8.87 m. Their maximum height ranges from 0.28 to 1.35 m. The thickness of the elevated rock layers ranges from 0.06 to 0.46 m and generally is thinner in the central part of the forms. Hydration caves evolve in shape and size. Degree of destruction depends on the thickness of the uplifted rock layer, fractures and amount of anhydrite transformed into gypsum. The formation of caves depends on the rate of anhydrite weathering and the type of quarry bedrock. Three types of bedrock: the bedrock with a open joint system, the bedrock with apparent layering and the homogeneous and massive bedrock without distinct lithological and structural features, have a different effect on the hydration forms and hydration caves occurring inside them. The structure of bedrock for example influence the way the rock void is opened and fractured. The cave bottom is commonly a solid fractured rock and covered with blocks detached from the ceiling or with weathered rubble. The cave ceiling is a solid rock showing smooth morphology, in places with protruding bent pieces of rock and with fractures. Caves entrances are predominantly from one site of hydration form. Rarely there are two entrances or small inlets that are too narrow for a man to enter the cave. Some documented caves are worth to remark: the longest and simultaneously the highest cave (Ramesh Cave) with an axis length of 8.87 m and a height of 1.35 m; the largest cave according to size of the bottom surface (Damian Cave) with an area of 29.4 m2; and two-chamber cave (Adrian Cave); and the others: the divided cave; the tepee-shaped cave; the rock bridge cave; as well as the symmetrical and asymmetrical caves. Hydration caves are a unique and rarely described type of caves. Their documentation and detailed characteristics bring us closer to recognition the way of their development and morphological evolution. In turn, the inventory, monitoring and promotion enable general public to learn about them.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".