The Space-Cyber Nexus: Ensuring the Resilience, Security and Defence of Critical Infrastructure

Article I describes outer space as a complex and strategic sector that involves various interests and actors and has a legal framework that is not well-defined or updated.The Article examines the legal and political aspects of using satellite capabilities in CI to understand the consequences and facilitate the development of recommendations.The Article addresses the potential impact of a cyber event on space assets and interconnected national and international CI.This Article summarises the main points of the conception of space systems as CI, which therefore requires inclusion in relevant protection frameworks and paradigms: Building resilient protection policies is key to recognising space systems as CI.Article II, an analysis of cyber security risks and vulnerabilities, was conducted to facilitate future artificial intelligence use in space security.The paper also examines how a network of digital twins can effectively defend against constant cyber attacks in space, which target users and ground segments.To address these issues, the Article defines cyber security risks and vulnerabilities in space and evaluates the potential of simulating a network digital twin to prevent and counter cyber attacks on space and ground segments.To achieve this, the paper focuses on the case study of Earth observation (EO) operations, which are particularly sensitive to the reputational, environmental, and social impacts of malicious cyber activity.Article III addresses hostile cyber operations, reconstructing their nature and characteristics to understand how they can influence space systems.It is vital to characterise space cyber threats to design and create protective measures to boost the cyber resilience of space assets.To achieve this, the paper reconstructs possible incident responses, analysing the ICT governance frameworks and strategies, technical strategies, and applying and enforcing the applicable laws given the related minimum requirements for risk mitigations (the Notion of Prudent and Reasonable Actor) as insurance aspects.The article analyses the relationship between the cyber legal framework and outer space with an in-depth analysis of the legal and political responses in state-to-state cyber relations.Article IV addresses the legal and technical challenges to ensure the cyber security of mega-constellations and possible solutions and assets to minimise risks by applying specific policies and techniques permitted (or required by) technological progress.Megaconstellations are a relatively new phenomenon in the space industry, involving thousands of small satellites in low Earth orbit that provide global communications services.Small satellites typically have a small mass and use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components for their electronics and structure.For instance, Estonia's EST CUBE was the first of its kind to attempt the use of an electric solar wind sail (E-sail) and had a mass of 1kg.These mega-constellations present challenges for cyber security, as they can be vulnerable to various types of cyber attacks, such as jamming, spoofing, hacking, or cyber sabotage.These attacks can have serious consequences not only for the services provided by mega-constellations but also for the security of space and the sustainability of the orbital environment.For this reason, it is essential to adopt adequate cyber security measures for mega-constellations, including both technical and regulatory aspects.The Article hence analyses the concept of cyber security for mega-constellations, examining the main risks and possible solutions, both at the individual satellite and network level, to propose some policy recommendations to promote greater cooperation and coordination between space actors involved in mega-constellations.Article V maps the landscape of cyber and space law, particularly concerning their nexus: The Article examines and discusses the legal and political implications of the rela- Results and Associated PublicationsArticle III presents the results of action-oriented research.This project was carried out in partnership with the Cyber and Space Working Group of the Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC).The research project sought to analyse the impact of hostile cyber operations on space activities, from their inception to their consequences.The Article also assesses the current and future possibilities of coordinating information security policies of satellite communication systems.It highlights that protecting a satellite system from cyber threats is a complex task that requires a joint effort from all stakeholders, whether from the public or private sector, and involves addressing both technical and legal aspects.Thus, as the threats continue to evolve, keeping the system secure has become increasingly challenging.This Article is closely connected to Articles IV and V, as it makes use of their policy and legal findings to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nexus.Article IV is an exploratory investigation into the legal and technical issues surrounding the cyber security protection of satellite mega-constellations and the policy changes and technological improvements that can mitigate these threats.To be able to recommend valid and concrete dynamics and assets, the study included extensive consultation between governmental and non-governmental actors.The Article argues that it is essential to establish consistent and comprehensive criteria to ensure the security and reliability of space systems, especially in the face of low-level threats.The ITU recommendations must be scrupulously respected by national authorities, especially as poor regulation can result in some private entities avoiding the process and generating dangers in orbit.The Article concludes that it is thus necessary to identify and follow the good practices of national structures or bodies, develop a guideline for future missions, and define a legal framework for space activities involving mega-constellations.Article V explores the legal and political implications of the intersection between outer space and EDTs, paying particular attention to space operations involving military and civil international journal of critical infrastructure protection 45 (2024) 100680

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