Concepts of International Arbitration in the United States and Europe at the Beginning of the 20th century and Its Implementation within the framework of the League of Nations
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The growing contradictions between the powers at the turn of the XIX- XX centuries provoked numerous bloody local conflicts. Therefore, even before the First World War in European representatives of intellectual cycles, politicians from the USA, Great Britain, and France started talking about the necessity to create mechanisms for a peace resolution of conflicts. The international arbitration was considered as a key instrument capable of preventing large-scale military conflicts and punishing powers that violate international law. The article is to analyze concepts of the international arbitration and projects of international peace organization created by European and American politicians at the beginning of the XX century, in particular ideas of former US Presidents T. Roosevelt, W. Taft, State Secretary E. Root, as well as representative of European political elite – British minister R. Cecil, judge W. Phillimore, and former French Prime-Minister Leon Bourgeois, etc.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.007 | 0.022 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.011 | 0.007 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".