National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas: A Review of Progress

Most of the marine protected areas (MPAs) around the world, estimated to number about 5000, have been established both on an ad hoc basis and through systematic planning processes.The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) requires that Party states establish, by 2012, comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas, and that there should be effective consen^^ation of at least 10% of each of the world's ecological regions Ecoregion (SSME) programme.These reflect the generic principles that have been developed over the last decade and that are now encapsulated in the guidelines available from WCPA-Marine.This reports looks particularly at four of these: adequacy, representation, resilience and connectivity.The principle of representation is proving relatively easy to address, provided adequate classifications and biodiversity distribution (or suitable proxies) are available.However, the principles of adequacy, resilience and connectivity are proving more difficult to incorporate, since there are few specific guidelines on applying them due to a lack of clear scientific understanding."Rules of thumb' are being used where possible and the rapid growth of research in this field means that new information is constantly becoming available. Representativity:A fully ecologically representative network requires one or more MPAs to be established for each example of the full range of biological diversity (from genes to ecosystems) and the associated oceanographic environment within the given area.Most MPAs are on the Executive Summary continental shelf and in coastal waters, and offshore and deep-sea habitats are grossly under represented at present, although important steps are now being taken to address this shortcoming.For example, MPAs have been established for hydrothermal vents in Canada and the Azores, seamounts in Australia and the UK, and deep-water cold coral reefs in Norway, and a process is underway to develop a mechanism for establishing MPAs on the High Seas.Representation at the ecoregion level has been analysed in a recent study, using the Marine Ecoregion of the World (MEOW) classification.Global level analyses are available that show representation of reefs and mangroves has already surpassed the 10% target for protection, but for such vulnerable ecosystems, much higher conservation targets are needed.In most case studies in the report, conservation targets for protection of different marine ecosystems and biodiversity within a network are often 20% or above for example: Belize has conservation targets of 30% for reefs; 80% for spawning aggregations; and 60% for turtle nesting sites, and is making good progress in meeting these.However, at the national and smaller regional level, and for other less high profile ecosystems and habitats, the necessary data are often lacking to assess representation.Adequacy: This refers to the need to ensure that the individual components of the network are of sufficient size and appropriate shape and distribution to maintain the ecological viability and integrity of populations and species.Globally, the estimated total of 5045 MPAs cover about 2.59 million km^, or 0.72% of the world's ocean surface, with only 12.8% of the total MPA area (or 0.08% of the world's oceans) in NTAs.For most countries, data are still insufficient to carry out a full analysis of adequacy.Although size, shape and spatial distribution should be easy to measure, in practice it has proved difficult to collate accurate data for several reasons, including variations in definitions of MPAs (e.g.extent to which inter-tidal or terrestrial areas is included), lack of information on boundaries, and poor reporting.Provisional analyses, including those undertaken by individual countries, or through global assessments using the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), indicate that few if any countries have adequate MPA networks at present.Some countries and regions are however, starting to make good progress towards planning for protection of their territorial waters and EEZs, for example, in Kenya, Mexico, and several European countries.There is a growing tendency to designate large MPAs covering several linked ecosystems.Most research on optimal MPA size has been in relation to NTAs and recommended sizes range from 10 to 100 km^.A separate global analysis suggests that about 35-60% of the world's MPAs are in this size range; to assess adequacy at national and regional levels, similar analyses would need to be undertaken.Resilience: Also referred to as replication or redundancy, resilience describes the ability of a natural system, or MPA network, to survive natural catastrophes and major impacts.It has been used relatively little in the planning of MPA networks, perhaps because scientific understanding of it in the marine environment is still incomplete, although good progress has been made in relation to coral reefs and spawning aggregations, for which guidelines are being tested at sites in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Belize.Given the importance of this principle, efforts must be made to accelerate its adoption in MPA network design.Connectivity: This refers to the linkages between sites in a network created through larval dispersal, migration of organisms and the mixing of waters through currents and other oceanic physical processes.Mechanisms for ensuring and maintaining good connectivity in an MPA network have yet to be fully demonstrated, and may require a variety of innovative approaches such as dynamic sites.National or even regional level MPA networks may not be able to protect all the key sites for particular species, and this emphasises the need for ensuring that appropriate transboundary linkages are made.Research is suggesting that there is more localised retention of propagules than previously thought, and sites within a network may need to be within 10-100 km of each other.Executive Summary fully involved and scientific design principles applied.Although some MPA networks are being designed to be implemented as a single package, as in some states in Australia, USA and Canada, a step-wise process is often more practical.Pilot areas can be implemented, lessons learnt, and the network progressively built up, the plan being refined as information, funding and capacity becomes available.The establishment of clear goals and objectives for the network is essential.The main issue is often deciding whether the network is primarily for biodiversity protection or for resource management for human use (such as fisheries management), since different approaches may be required.The Executive Summary 3.Expand regional, national and local initiatives to establish MPA networks: This will require governments to accelerate their efforts, and civil society, regional organisations, and bilateral and multilateral assistance agencies to provide support.MPA networks need to be larger, and based on the principles that have been determined for effective ecological networks (adequate, representative, resilient, and connected), using appropriate biogeographical classifications and decision-support tools (e.g.Marxan).At the same time, research is needed to develop a better understanding of concepts such as adequacy, connectivity and resilience.The necessary funding should be made available.Assessments of the costs and benefits of the network approach are needed so that countries can budget for it and appreciate its value.Linking the development of MPA networks with overall national conservation system planning, and harmonising the process with the establishment of terrestrial protected area systems should be considered.Appropriate policies and legislation must be introduced where needed.Gaps in MPA network development at the regional level could be reduced by improved coordination between government, international organisations and NGOs, and the development of guidance on how regional networks might best be established.Support for the growing number of social networks will help to promote the development of ecological MPA networks.4. Monitor and evaluate progress in the development of ecological MPA networks: This will require the identification of indicators to measure progress, perhaps based on the self-assessment checklist prepared by WCPA-Marine, and improved mechanisms for tracking and reporting progress.Increased efforts are required to establish effective and structured data-gathering initiatives at national and regional levels.Organisations such as WCPA-Marine, UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), CBD Secretariat, UNEP-RSP and the many national MPA bodies and experts can play a role.5. Improve management of MPAs and of the MPA networks as they are established: It will be important to ensure that the new focus on establishing MPA networks does not result in the creation of more unmanaged MPAs or 'paper parks'.Assessing management effectiveness can help to encourage good management, and such evaluations should be undertaken on a regular basis.The basic principles of good MPA network management and governance, as opposed to those for individual MPAs have yet to be clearly identified, with indicators that can be used to measure the success of the network in reducing the rate of biodiversity loss.6. Ensure that MPA networks are established within a broader spatial planning and ecosystem-based management framework:MPA networks alone, even if effectively managed,will not protect all marine biodiversity effectively.Systematic conservation planning must be extended to the oceans as a whole, as called for by the CBD.

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