Slave Refugees, Self-Emancipation, and the Evolving Landscape of Freedom in the United States and Canada
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Leidschrift, jaargang 35, nummer 3, november 2020 separation, brutal treatment, and a lifelong yearning to be free were the primary motivations behind self-emancipation. Slave Refugees, Wartime Migrations, and the First Emancipation in the United States and CanadaDuring the colonial era, black enslavement existed in various forms across North America.European colonisers forcibly migrated enslaved Africans via the transatlantic slave trade to the present-day United States and Canada.Over subsequent decades, through a combination of forced migration and natural reproduction, the enslaved black population of North America grew to the hundreds of thousands, primarily confined to the southern states.3 Yet contrary to popular imagination, slavery was not confined to the southern colonies.Enslaved Africans and African-descended people were held across New England and the northern Mid-Atlantic (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania).Statutes and judicial rulings across these regions upheld the legality of black enslavement.4 Meanwhile, black enslavement was legal and practiced throughout French and British Canada.Enslaved Africans and African-descended people were held in the Canadian Maritimes, Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), and Upper Canada (present-day southwestern Ontario).In her book The Hanging of Angélique, Afua Cooper referred to black enslavement as 'Canada's 3 The origins and development of US slavery have been covered by numerous scholarly studies.For sample introductory texts, see P. Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619-1877 (New York, NY 1993); I. Belin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA 1998); I. Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves (Cambridge, MA 2003); D. Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York, NY 2006), Ch. 6. 4 For slavery in New England, see W. Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York, NY 2016); For slavery in the northern Mid-Atlantic, see E.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.006 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.032 | 0.018 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.011 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.007 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".