Stability and Transparency in Mixed-Reality Bilateral Human Teleoperation
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Recent work introduced the concept of human teleoperation (HT), where the remote robot typically considered in conventional bilateral teleoperation is replaced by a novice person wearing a mixed reality head-mounted display and tracking the motion of a virtual tool controlled by an expert. HT has advantages in cost, complexity, and patient acceptance for telemedicine in low-resource communities or remote locations. However, the stability, transparency, and performance of bilateral HT are unexplored. In this paper, we therefore develop a mathematical model of the HT system using test data. We then analyze various control architectures with this model and implement them with the HT system, testing volunteer operators and a virtual fixture-based simulated patient to find the achievable performance, investigate stability, and determine the most promising teleoperation scheme in the presence of time delays. We show that instability in HT, while not destructive or dangerous, makes the system impossible to use. However, stable and transparent teleoperation are possible with small time delays (<inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$< 200$</tex-math></inline-formula> ms) through 3-channel teleoperation, or with large time delays through model-mediated teleoperation with local pose and force feedback for the novice.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".