Bibliographic record
Abstract
This report describes the threat of geomagnetic storms on the Earth caused by solar activity and further discusses their impacts (past and future) on the U.S. power grid. The intention is to describe the seriousness of the threat through a description of past geomagnetic storms and their impacts. In addition, the ability to model the interactions of the geomagnetic field with power grids allows an understanding of past events and the ability to predict the effects of future geomagnetic storms. This report provides the baseline for determining the future recommendations for protecting the U.S. power grid from this threat in the future. This report is organized to provide in Section 1 a detailed overview of how geomagnetic storms affect the power grid through past experience and through the development of validated computer models at Metatech over many years. Section 2 focuses more directly on the power system impacts caused by the March 13, 1989 Great Geomagnetic Storm in Canada and the United States. Section 3 looks to the future and examines several possible geomagnetic storm scenarios and their effects on the U.S. power grid. Section 4 provides more details on the specific impacts to at-risk EHV transformers in the United
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.817 | 0.682 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; the direct Gemma label and the distilled Codex classifier agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".