Private Health Insurance and Access to Health Care
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Mossialos Private or voluntary health insurance (VHI) does not play a significant role in many health systems in the European Union (EU), either in terms of funding or as a means of gaining access to health care. In most EU member states it accounts for less than 5 % of total expenditure on health and covers a relatively small proportion of the population (see Table 1). The exceptions to this trend are France, Germany and the Netherlands. VHI fulfils diff e rent roles in diff e rent contexts. In the EU context it can be classified a c c o rding to whether its role, in relation to s t a t u t o ry health insurance (SHI), is substitutive, complementary or supplementary. Substitutive VHI provides cover that would o t h e rwise be available from the state. It is p u rchased by those who are excluded fro m p a rticipating in some or all aspects of the SHI scheme – for example, Dutch residents with an annual income over 30,700 a year and their dependants (around a quarter of the population) – or by those can choose to opt out of that SHI scheme, such as German employees with annual earnings over 45,900 and their
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.030 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".