Insurance and Health Care Expenditures: What’s the Real Question?
Bibliographic record
Abstract
For more than a quarter century, researchers and policy-makers have known that people who must pay out of pocket for health care—because they are uninsured or face high levels of cost sharing—use less care (1, 2). However, uninsured persons differ from insured persons in a variety of measured and unmeasured ways (3). Consequently, the precise effect of insurance on health care utilization and expenditures is difficult to quantify by using observational data. In this issue, Ward and Franks (4) take a new ap-proach to addressing this question. They used data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, which collects in-formation on respondents over 2 years, to compare health care expenditures for 4 groups: continuously insured per-sons, continuously uninsured persons, persons who are un-insured during the first year but are insured the next year,
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.010 | 0.057 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.009 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.006 | 0.009 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.009 | 0.006 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.011 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".