The Determinants of Canadian Provincial Health Expenditures: Evidence from Dynamic Panel PRELIMINARY
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to reveal the magnitude of the income elasticity of health expenditure in Canadian Provinces. Health can be seen as a luxury good if the income elasticity exceeds unity and as a necessity good if the income elasticity is below unity. It can be further postulated that if the income elasticity of health expenditure is less than one, then a high priority has not been given to the public health sector among the goals for social and economic development. Panel data on real per capita GDP, relative price of health care, proportion of publicly funded health expenditure, the share of senior population, life expectancy at birth and real per capita transfers from federal government for 10 provinces have been used to investigate the determinants of Canadian real per capita provincial total, private and government health expenditures for the period 1975-2002. The evidence in this paper supports that health appears to be a luxury for Manitoba and British Columbia whereas necessity for other provinces. However, from a national perspective health is not a luxury for Canada.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.011 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.009 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.006 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".