Agricultural Trade Disputes Between Canada and the United States: Costly but Diminishing The Border Papers
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In this issue... As Canada-U.S. agricultural trade flows have grown dramatically, the number of disputes between the two countries has actually remained constant. Remaining disputes for most commodities are mostly due to normal competitive frictions rather than major policy differences between the two countries. The Study in Brief Canada and U.S. agricultural markets have become considerably more integrated over the last two decades, particularly since 1989. Agricultural trade flows have more than doubled during that period. At the same time, there have been a number of agricultural trade disputes covering a range of commodities and dispute types. Because they have also been costly to both countries, we examine them here with a view to reducing their frequency. Our first finding is that the absolute number of Canada-U.S. disputes per year has been constant. However, over this period the inflation-adjusted level of trade has more than doubled. So, on a per dollar of trade basis, the number of disputes has fallen by at least half.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.019 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.006 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.012 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.010 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.011 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".