Post‐TBI cognitive trajectories: Differences by sex/gender, cause, and severity
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: While traumatic brain injury (TBI) is recognized as an important risk factor for cognitive health, most research has been conducted on military servicemembers and athletes, often postmortem-primarily (or exclusively) male populations with limited causes of TBI, access to healthcare and monitoring not typical of the general population. The generalizability of these studies, and the impact on TBI at the population level, remains unclear; and little research has been conducted on TBIs among the general population, including women, nor using non-postmortem methods. METHOD: Using TBI and cognition data from the Health and Retirement Study, this paper analyses longitudinal changes in cognition and dementia risk among participants who have experienced TBI after age 50, including differences by sex/gender, TBI cause, and severity. Cognition was measured using a 27-point scale and included immediate and delayed recall, numeracy, and orientation questions. For TBI, participants were asked a series of questions about whether they had had a traumatic brain injury, the date of the injury, cause of that injury, and various sequelae. A dummy variable was coded into having had a TBI or not, and variables were created to indicate the earliest and latest TBI each participant had. Sex/gender was gather in the initial wave and two options (male and female) were given. Multilevel regression was conducted with cognition as the outcome variable and including time since TBI, source of TBI, and sequelae count, as well as sex/gender. Demographic variables, including age, race/ethnicity, education, wealth, veteran status, and histories of homelessness and incarceration were also included. RESULT: In the fully adjusted model, years-since-TBI was statistically significantly associated with a decrease in cognition (b = -0.05, p = 0.008). Interpersonal violence as the cause of TBI was also negatively associated with cognition (b = -0.74, p = 0.004). Neither sex/gender nor TBI sequelae had a statistically significant association with cognition CONCLUSION: TBI may have long-lasting effects on cognitive health well after its occurrence, and these may be compounded when that injury is due to interpersonal violence. More research is needed to analyze the relationship between violence, TBI, and later-life cognition.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".