The craniofacial shape of modern humans embodies genomic signatures of evolution, diversity, and clinical conditions
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Human craniofacial morphology is a hallmark of our species' diversity and evolutionary history, shaped by adaptation, introgression, and global dispersal. Cranial globularization and chin emergence are well-documented morphological transformations whose genetic basis remains poorly understood, whereas Neandertal introgression is primarily documented through genomic evidence. How these evolutionary phenomena relate to craniofacial variation in present-day humans remains largely unresolved. Here, we leverage 3D craniofacial data from over 50,000 UK Biobank participants and employ a multivariate, multiscale genome-wide association approach to define axes of variation aligned with interpopulation allele frequency shifts, evolutionary processes, and clinical conditions. We identify continuous craniofacial trends within our cohort that mirror global patterns of genetic diversity, indicating that facial differences between human populations arise at the phenotypic axes already present within a single population. We further demonstrate that modern human-derived alleles underlie the origins of the human chin by reducing midfacial projection relative to other hominins and reveal the persistent effects of Neandertal introgression on craniofacial diversity today. We also model genetically informed endophenotypes for orofacial clefts, obstructive sleep apnoea, and myopia. These findings provide insights into our species' evolutionary history and endophenotypes of clinical conditions and establish a framework for contextualizing craniofacial diversity into biologically meaningful axes of variation relevant to diverse scientific disciplines.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".