〈Articles〉Sable Systems and Institutional Change of Equalization Payments in Canada from 1957-58 to 2012-13
Bibliographic record
Abstract
[概要] 第1にカナダ平衡交付金の歴史は, 「制度項目別」の頑健性という視点から, 誕生期の標準税方式(1957～66年度), 発展期の代表的税制方式(1967～2006年度), 成熟期の新定式配分(2007年度以降)の3期間に区分できる。第2に人口1人当たり実際支出の最高・最低倍率は, 各州の規模の経済(人口)と広域の不経済(面積)のバランスで, 1.24倍と小さい格差であったから, 単段階の税源調整制度が可能であった。第3に全国平均税率の標準税収と税率の異なる実際税収との対比によって, 1人当たり実際支出が高いケベックでは, 所得税を超過課税し, 産油州のアルバータは, 天然資源の収入で一般売上税を課税していないことが明らかにできた。そして1人当たり標準税収の「都市化による逓増傾向」は, 高度成長から低成長下で鈍化するため, オンタリオ不交付の前提が, 崩壊するのである。第4に1999年度以降のオンタリオ不況で, 交付金総額の対GDP比がそれまでの1％前後から, 2003年度0.7％までに急落したのは, 総額の半分を占めるケベックへの交付金と2つの大規模州というカナダ固有の特徴が, 制度項目の「中位5州平均のワナ」にはまった結果である。しかし最後に, カナダの連邦政府は, 簡素な税源調整制度を維持しながら, 各州も, 1人当たり実際支出が他の州に比べて高いときには, 州の所得税の超過課税で限界責任を発揮し, 交付金総額の安定性に挑戦しているのである。 [Abstract] First of all, the history of the Equalization payments can be divided to the three periods of standard tax systems, from 1957-58 to 1966-67, representative tax systems from 1967-68 to 2006-07, and a new formula from 2007-08 to 2012-13. Second, the simplest revenue arrangement system has been maintained when compared to the system in Germany. The ratio of the highest per capita expenditure of a province to the lowest is just 1.24 times because of the balance of each province between scale economies of higher population and diseconomies of wider area. Quebec had been financing higher per capita expenditures with a higher rate of income tax and Albert had not introduced a general sales tax for the natural resource revenues. This was clarified by comparing provincial "revenue yield" based on the national average tax rate with "revenue base" of each provincial tax rate. Third, although the per capita provincial fiscal capacity is increasing in the province withhigher populations, Ontario's non-receiving province changed to a receiving province in 2009-10 due to low economic growth in Canada. Fourth, the recession in Ontario caused a decline in the ratio of total amount of the Equalization payments to GDP from 1％ in 1999-2000 to 0.7％ in 2003-04. This was due to the trap of so-called per capita revenue yield of five provinces. Finally, both the federal government and provinces have challenged the stable total amount of the Equalization payments with a simple revenue arrangement system.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.006 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.014 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".