The Invention and Spread of Electric Utilities, with a Measure of the Extent of Foreign Ownership
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Electricity is essential, but it was not always so. The vast benefits, as well as dependency, electricity has brought to the contemporary world are never more dramatically demonstrated than when a blackout occurs. In economically developed countries, even brief blackouts cause severe inconvenience, and extended blackouts can impose huge economic costs and even lead to breakdowns in civil order. In less developed countries, blackouts tend to be chronic, inhibiting economic growth and social progress. Two massive blackouts, each affecting over 50 million people, occurred in August and September of 2003, one engulfing the midwestern and northeastern United States and part of eastern Canada, the other affecting most of Italy – the largest blackout in Europe since World War II. These blackouts demonstrated both the importance of electricity and the imperfection of the industry that delivers it. As the final report of the task force investigating the U.S.-Canada failure noted, “Modern society has come to depend on reliable electricity as an essential resource for national security; health and welfare; communications; finance; transportation; food and water supply; heating, cooling, and lighting; computers and electronics; commercial enterprise; and even entertainment and leisure – in short, nearly all aspects of modern life.” Nitin Desai, Secretary General of the United Nations' World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002) emphasized the importance of electricity both for today and for the future: “Electricity has profoundly transformed the industrialized world and led from the era of smoke chimneys into the era of knowledge-based services shaping the 21st century … .
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".