Notice bibliographique
Résumé
2003, blackouts affecting millions struck several places in North America and Europe. These included outages on August 14 in the northeastern and Great Lakes regions of the United States and Canada, resulting in the loss of approximately 61,800 MW of load. More blackouts occurred on August 28 in south London and on September 5 in West Midlands (east of Birmingham), England. On September 23, a blackout in southern Sweden and eastern Denmark resulted in a 1,850 MW loss of load (about 8 GWh of undelivered eleetricity). A blackout darkened the entire country of Italy on September 28, in some cases for more than eighteen hours, and resulted in a failure to deliver approximately 177 GWh to 57 million people. The physical causes of these blackouts and those that went before such as the two 1996 outages that occurred after lines sagged into trees and affected all the western states in the United States (as far east as Texas and North Dakota), the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, and Baja California Norte in Mexico have been studied extensively. The reports on the 2003 outage in eastern Denmark and southern Sweden identified the cause as two unrelated and severe faults occurring too closely in time to allow grid recovery. However, the other 2003 outages referenced above all included human and institutional failures that either caused the fault or impeded effective management of the fault. These failures call into question the interrelationship of the various entities responsible for grid management. Reports on the outages in the United States/Canada and Italy analyzed the nature of the failures and recommended various improvements in system operations, such as improved communications between and among control areas, and technological improvements, such as increasing opera* tors* visibility over wider regions of the system. Those reports and the one on the Sweden/Denmark outage also note that increased strains are placed on the transmission grid in light of the development of new markets. Long-distance transmission is now driven by economics, not just reliability needs. Thus, greater investment in transmission is also recommended in the reports. While the solutions to these problems may not be easy to implement, the nature of the solution can at least be identified. Effective enforcement, however, is more elusive.
Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.
Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction distillée sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Apprise à partir de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Gemma. Le mode candidate est l'union des têtes enseignantes seuillées; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont ni des étiquettes humaines ni des étiquettes directes de modèles de pointe.
Scores Codex et Gemma par catégorie
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Communication savante | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Science ouverte | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule tête enseignante, pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».