Bibliographic record
Abstract
2003, blackouts affecting millions struck several places in North America and Europe. These included outages on August 14 in the northeastern and Great Lakes regions of the United States and Canada, resulting in the loss of approximately 61,800 MW of load. More blackouts occurred on August 28 in south London and on September 5 in West Midlands (east of Birmingham), England. On September 23, a blackout in southern Sweden and eastern Denmark resulted in a 1,850 MW loss of load (about 8 GWh of undelivered eleetricity). A blackout darkened the entire country of Italy on September 28, in some cases for more than eighteen hours, and resulted in a failure to deliver approximately 177 GWh to 57 million people. The physical causes of these blackouts and those that went before such as the two 1996 outages that occurred after lines sagged into trees and affected all the western states in the United States (as far east as Texas and North Dakota), the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, and Baja California Norte in Mexico have been studied extensively. The reports on the 2003 outage in eastern Denmark and southern Sweden identified the cause as two unrelated and severe faults occurring too closely in time to allow grid recovery. However, the other 2003 outages referenced above all included human and institutional failures that either caused the fault or impeded effective management of the fault. These failures call into question the interrelationship of the various entities responsible for grid management. Reports on the outages in the United States/Canada and Italy analyzed the nature of the failures and recommended various improvements in system operations, such as improved communications between and among control areas, and technological improvements, such as increasing opera* tors* visibility over wider regions of the system. Those reports and the one on the Sweden/Denmark outage also note that increased strains are placed on the transmission grid in light of the development of new markets. Long-distance transmission is now driven by economics, not just reliability needs. Thus, greater investment in transmission is also recommended in the reports. While the solutions to these problems may not be easy to implement, the nature of the solution can at least be identified. Effective enforcement, however, is more elusive.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.010 | 0.026 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.009 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.005 | 0.006 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.015 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".