Social neuroendocrinology of competition

The relationship between testosterone concentrations and aggressive behaviour in studies 
\nof people has produced very inconsistent findings. However, one consistent fmding that 
\nhas emerged is that competitive and aggressive interactions potentiate testosterone release 
\nin both human and non-human species. It has been argued that socially-induced 
\nalterations in testosterone concentrations may function to influence ongoing and/or future 
\nsocial behaviour. Nonetheless, few studies have empirically tested this hypothesis. The 
\ncurrent series of experiments was designed to address the extent to which competitioninduced fluctuations in testosterone concentrations were associated with ongoing and/or 
\nsubsequent social behaviour. In Study 1, men (n = 38) provided saliva samples prior to, 
\nand at the conclusion of, the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (PSAP). Although 
\nbaseline testosterone concentrations were not related to aggressive behaviour, there was a 
\npositive correlation between change in testosterone and aggressive behaviour such that 
\nmen who were most aggressive on the PSAP demonstrated the largest increase in 
\ntestosterone concentrations. Furthermore, a rise in testosterone during the PSAP predicted 
\nwillingness to choose a subsequent competitive task. In Study 2, men and women 
\nprovided saliva samples prior to and after competing against a same-sex opponent on the 
\nNumber Tracing Task (NTT). The outcome of the competition was rigged such that half 
\nof the individuals won most of the races, while the other half lost most of the races, thus 
\nexperimentally creating a winner and loser in the laboratory. Following the competitive 
\ninteraction, men and women played the PSAP with their same-sex partner. Results 
\nindicated that men selected the aggressive response (but not reward or protection 
\nresponses), more frequently than women. For men assigned to the loss condition, an increase in testosterone concentrations in response to the NTT predicted subsequent 
\naggressive behaviour. For men assigned to the win condition, an increase in testosterone 
\nconcentrations in response to the NTT predicted subsequent aggressive behaviour, but 
\nonly among those men who scored high on trait dominance. Change in testosterone and 
\ntrait dominance did not predict aggressive behaviour in women. In Study 3, men provided 
\nsaliva samples prior to, during, and at the end of the PSAP. They were randomly assigned 
\nto one of four experimental conditions that differed in the extent to which they were 
\nprovoked and whether they received reward for behaving aggressively (i.e., stealing 
\npoints). Results indicated that baseline testosterone concentrations did not correlate with 
\naggression in any of the experimental conditions. Consistent with Study 1, there was a 
\npositive correlation between change in testosterone and aggressive behaviour among men 
\nwho were provoked, but did not receive reward for aggression (i.e., reactive condition). 
\nMen who were provoked but did not receive reward for aggression enjoyed the task the 
\nmost and were more likely to choose the competitive versus non-competitive task relative 
\nto men assigned to the other experimental conditions. Also, individual differences in 
\naggressive behaviour among these men were positively correlated with the extent to 
\nwhich they enjoyed the task. Together, these studies indicate that testosterone dynamics 
\nwithin the context of competition influence subsequent competitive and aggressive 
\nbehaviours in humans and that testosterone may be a marker of the intrinsically rewarding 
\nnature of costly aggressive behaviour.

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