Notice bibliographique
Résumé
Abstract Coal production is most significant fuel source followed by natural gas and petroleum. Coal is overwhelmingly the most significant energy source used to generate electricity. Increased emphasis had been placed on renewable energy resources, including wood and wood waste; municipal solid waste and refuse‐derived fuel; other sources of biomass and waste, eg, agricultural crop wastes, tire‐derived fuels, and selected hazardous wastes burned as fuel substitutes in cement kilns; wind and solar energy; geothermal steam and hot water; and other unconventional energy sources. Estimates of the contribution of these energy sources vary. There are vast reserves of coal and lignite in the United States. Environmental considerations were reflected in coal production and consumption statistics, including regional production patterns and economic sector utilization characteristics. Average coal sulfur content and coal ash content declined, clearly reflecting a trend toward utilization of coal that produces less SO 2 and less flyash to capture. U.S. resources and reserves of petroleum and natural gas, including natural gas liquids (NGL), are limited. The United States has experienced a significant decline in oil reserves. Similarly, there was a net reserve loss of dry natural gas. The decrease in petroleum and natural gas reserves has encouraged interest in and discovery and development of unconventional sources of these hydrocarbons. Domestic petroleum, natural gas, and natural gas liquids production has declined at a rate commensurate with the decrease in reserves. Total U.S. oil and gas consumption remains high, and these are the fuels of choice for residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation applications. Nuclear, hydroelectric, and geothermal resources now contribute some 9.8 EJ annually to the U.S. economy. Biomass and waste fuels contributed some 3.7 EJ to the economy. These fuels include wood and wood waste; spent pulping liquor at pulp and paper mills; agricultural materials such as rice hulls, bagasse, cotton gin trash, coffee grounds, and a variety of manures. Other sources of energy worth noting are the extensive wind farms, solar projects, and related emerging unconventional technologies. Attention is being paid to increasing the efficiency of fuel utilization as well as to reducing the formation of airborne emissions ranging form particulates NO x and SO 2 to the management of air toxics such as HCl and trace metals. The overwhelming sources of petroleum reserves and supply are in the Middle East. Other significant sources of reserves include Russia, the North Sea, North American countries, and parts of southeast Asia. There are also significant concentrations of coal reserves in Russia and China. The United States, Poland, South Africa, Australia, India, Germany, and the United Kingdom also produce coal. Canada obtains some of its energy from the Athabasca tar sands development. Renewable and unconventional energy sources are used more extensively in other parts of the world than in the United States. Biofuels are a significant contributor to certain economies.
Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.
Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction distillée sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Apprise à partir de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Gemma. Le mode candidate est l'union des têtes enseignantes seuillées; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont ni des étiquettes humaines ni des étiquettes directes de modèles de pointe.
Scores Codex et Gemma par catégorie
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,001 | 0,000 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,000 | 0,001 |
| Communication savante | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Science ouverte | 0,001 | 0,000 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,002 | 0,001 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,005 | 0,000 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule tête enseignante, pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».