‘Living the same as the white people’: Mohawk and Anishinabe Women’s Labour in Southern Ontario, 1920-1940
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Aboriginal women have a long history of paid labour in Canada, yet there is little scholarly writing examining their work experiences. Using enfranchisement case files for the Ontario Indian agencies of Parry Sound and Manitowaning, supplemented by oral histories from the Tyendinaga Mohawks, this article explores the work lives of Anishinabe and Mohawk women in the 1920s and 1930s. Aboriginal women’s economic roles involved a continuum of labour ranging from non-cash-oriented subsistence production to commercially-oriented farming, handicraft production, and berry-picking, to wage labour in the capitalist economy. In response to increasing economic hardship on the reserves, First Nations men and women turned increasingly to off-reserve wage labour. While men around Georgian Bay had access to seasonal jobs in lumbering, sawmilling, transportation, and tourism, women faced much more limited employment opportunities in the area. Some responded by moving to towns and cities to work. Further south, the Mohawk women of Tyendinaga could take domestic service jobs and commute from the reserve, or they could move to larger cities to work. For both groups of women, as for women in general, domestic labour was the most common occupation. The Tyendinaga women also had considerable involvement in manufacturing and migrant farm labour. A few women from both groups were able to finish high school and obtain clerical jobs, which offered better pay and shorter hours. Aboriginal women’s occupational distributions were similar to those of other women in the labour force, especially working-class, immigrant, and racialized women. Contrary to today’s persistent media images of Aboriginal unemployment, their records and reminiscences reveal lifetimes of hard work, self-support, and self-respect. Resume Les femmes autochtones ont une longue histoire de la main-d’œuvre remuneree au Canada, pourtant il y a peu d’ouvrage erudit qui examine leur experience au travail. En utilisant les dossiers des cas d’admission au suffrage pour les agences indiennes de l’Ontario de Parry Sound et Manitowaning, auxquels s’ajoutent les histoires orales des Mohawks de Tyendinaga, cet article explore la vie professionnelle des femmes Anishinabes et Mohawks dans les annees 1920 et 1930. Les roles economiques des femmes autochtones ont implique une continuite de la main-d’oeuvre allant de la production de cultures vivrieres de base non axee sur l’argent a l’agriculture axee sur le commerce, au travail d’artisanat, a la cueillette des baies et au travail des salaries dans l’economie capitaliste. En reponse a la difficulte economique sur les reserves, les femmes et les hommes des Premieres Nations se sont retournes de plus en plus a la, main-d’œuvre en dehors des reserves. Tandis que les hommes de la Baie georgienne avaient acces aux emplois dans l’exploitation forestiere, l’industrie du sciage, les transports et le tourisme, les femmes avaient des possibilites d’emploi beaucoup plus limitees dans la region. Certaines femmes avaient choisi de demenager dans d’autres villes pour travailler. Plus au sud, les femmes Mohawks de Tyendinaga pourraient prendre des emplois de services domes-tiques et se deplacer des reserves, ou elles pourraient demenager dans de plus grandes villes pour travailler. Pour les deux groupes de femmes, comme pour toutes les femmes en general, la main-d’œuvre domestique etait la profession la plus courante. Les femmes de Tyendinaga avaient aussi participe au travail de fabrication et a la main-d’oeuvre agricole migrante. Quelques femmes de ces deux groupes avaient pu terminer les etudes d’ecole secondaire et obtenu des emplois de bureau qui leur offraient de meilleurs salaires et des horaires de travail plus courts. La repartition des emplois des femmes autochtones se ressemblait a celle d’autres femmes sur le marche du travail, en particulier, les femmes de la classe ouvriere, les femmes immigrantes et les femmes d’autres races que les blanches. Contrairement aux images des autochtones au chomage projetees constamment par les medias d’aujourd’hui, leurs dossiers et reminiscences revelent des durees de vie de travail assidu, d’independance et de respect de soi.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".