Re‐evaluation of SO<sub>2</sub> release of the 15 June 1991 Pinatubo eruption using ultraviolet and infrared satellite sensors
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In this study, ultraviolet TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) satellite data for SO2 are re‐evaluated for the first 15 days following the 15 June 1991 Pinatubo eruption to reflect new data retrieval and reduction methods. Infrared satellite SO2 data from the TOVS/HIRS/2 (TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite) Optical Vertical Sounder/High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder/2) sensor, whose data sets have a higher temporal resolution, are also analyzed for the first time for Pinatubo. Extrapolation of SO2 masses calculated from TOMS and TOVS satellite measurements 19–118 hours after the eruption suggest initial SO2 releases of 15 ± 3 Mt for TOMS and 19 ± 4 Mt for TOVS, including SO2 sequestered by ice in the early Pinatubo cloud. TOVS estimates are higher in part because of the effects of early formed sulfate. The TOMS SO2 method is not sensitive to sulfate, but can be corrected for the existence of this additional emitted sulfur. The mass of early formed sulfate in the Pinatubo cloud can be estimated with infrared remote sensing at about 4 Mt, equivalent to 3 Mt SO2. Thus the total S release by Pinatubo, calculated as SO2, is 18 ± 4 Mt based on TOMS and 19 ± 4 Mt based on TOVS. The SO2 removal from the volcanic cloud during 19–374 hours of atmospheric residence describes overall e‐folding times of 25 ± 5 days for TOMS and 23 ± 5 days for TOVS. These removal rates are faster in the first 118 hours after eruption when ice and ash catalyze the reaction, and then slow after heavy ash and ice fallout. SO2 mass increases in the volcanic cloud are observed by both TOMS and TOVS during the first 70 hours after eruption, most probably caused by the gas‐phase SO2 release from sublimating stratospheric ice‐ash‐gas mixtures. This result suggests that ice‐sequestered SO2 exists in all tropical volcanic clouds, and at least partially explains SO2 mass increases observed in other volcanic clouds in the first day or two after eruption.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".