Current Knowledge and Potential Applications of Ionic Liquids in the Petroleum Industry
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The modern petroleum industry is confronting many challenges throughout the chain value, since the production and refining of crude oil to the manufacture of high-value petrochemical products. Conventional light and middle crude oil production reached a maximum and tends to decline. Also, some producing countries are dealing with heaviest and higher content of pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen and metals) crude oils, which are being produced in countries like Canada, China, Mexico, Venezuela and the USA. Such heavy and extra heavy crude oils (HCOs) are more difficult to produce, transport, refine and convert to useful petrochemicals. Sometimes, conventional technologies may be applied but in most cases, new technologies are needed in order to allow economical HCOs production, transportation through pipelines, avoiding pressure drops, pipeline clogging and production stops due to asphaltene and paraffin aggregation and precipitation. Also, the higher content of heteroatoms in HCOs makes them more difficult to refine because of mainly catalyst deactivation that decreases the efficiency of processes like desulfurization, denitrogenation and demetallization. Moreover, the crude oil composition largely varies from one oil field to another among deposits along the countries. Heavy and extra-heavy oil are characterized by an API gravity between 20<API<10 and API10, respectively. The latter oils present a specific gravity near or above 1.0 g/cm 3 , i.e. they are as heavier or more than water, making crude oil dehydration, for example, very difficult to reach before refining. Therefore, the modern petroleum industry is facing several problems in petroleum production and refining. In last years, ionic liquids (ILs) have attracted the attention because of their properties and versatility of potential application in the petroleum industry. ILs may be use to augment the flowability of viscous and bituminous HCOs that could augment oil production and transportation, inhibit the aggregation of asphaltenes and paraffins, and diminish the deactivation of refining catalyst by removing heteroatoms and coke from the fuel and catalyst's surface. Because of the technological, environmental and economical impacts, this work reviews the current knowledge and potential application of ILs in petroleum industry.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.005 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".