Current Knowledge and Potential Applications of Ionic Liquids in the Petroleum Industry
Why this work is in the frame
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
The modern petroleum industry is confronting many challenges throughout the chain value, since the production and refining of crude oil to the manufacture of high-value petrochemical products.Conventional light and middle crude oil production reached a maximum and tends to decline.Also, some producing countries are dealing with heaviest and higher content of pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen and metals) crude oils, which are being produced in countries like Canada, China, Mexico, Venezuela and the USA.Such heavy and extra heavy crude oils (HCOs) are more difficult to produce, transport, refine and convert to useful petrochemicals.Sometimes, conventional technologies may be applied but in most cases, new technologies are needed in order to allow economical HCOs production, transportation through pipelines, avoiding pressure drops, pipeline clogging and production stops due to asphaltene and paraffin aggregation and precipitation.Also, the higher content of heteroatoms in HCOs makes them more difficult to refine because of mainly catalyst deactivation that decreases the efficiency of processes like desulfurization, denitrogenation and demetallization.Moreover, the crude oil composition largely varies from one oil field to another among deposits along the countries.Heavy and extra-heavy oil are characterized by an API gravity between 20<API<10 and API10, respectively.The latter oils present a specific gravity near or above 1.0 g/cm 3 , i.e. they are as heavier or more than water, making crude oil dehydration, for example, very difficult to reach before refining.Therefore, the modern petroleum industry is facing several problems in petroleum production and refining.In last years, ionic liquids (ILs) have attracted the attention because of their properties and versatility of potential application in the petroleum industry.ILs may be use to augment the flowability of viscous and bituminous HCOs that could augment oil production and transportation, inhibit the aggregation of asphaltenes and paraffins, and diminish the deactivation of refining catalyst by removing heteroatoms and coke from the fuel and catalyst's surface.Because of the technological, environmental and economical impacts, this work reviews the current knowledge and potential application of ILs in petroleum industry. Petroleum productionAccording to Speight (1999), crude oil is a mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbon that occur in porous rock deposits called reservoirs and that contains variable quantities of www.intechopen.comIonic Liquids: Applications and Perspectives 440 nitrogen-, oxygen-, and sulphur-containing compounds as well as traces of metals.Such complex mixture may be separated in four constituent fractions: saturates (S), aromatics (A), resins (R) and asphaltenes (A); known as SARA fractions (Table 1).Since these major crude oil fractions are obtained by consecutive separation methods (Figure 1), it is difficult to base MexicoCanada Venezue la China
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it