The Household Revolution: Childcare, Housework,and Female Labor Force Participation
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Home production has changed dramatically during the course of the 20th century: Labor sav-ing technologies, from running water to modern appliances, have substantially reduced the time demands of home production. In 1890 in the United States only 24 % of households had running water and only 8 % had electricity; in 1950, these figures were 83 % and 94%, respectively. By 1950, a majority of households also had indoor bathrooms and modern appliances such as stoves, electric irons, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators and washing machines. In an influential paper Greenwood, Seshadri and Yorukoglu (2005) suggest that the household technology revolution played an important role in increasing female labor force participation rates during the 20th century. Like Greenwood et al., we take as given both the secular decline in the price of durable goods as well as observed increases in the female wages relative to male wages. We have two features missing from their work. First, we include child-care since the bulk of the increase in female labor force participation was due to married women. Child-care can be produced using either primary care time (time spend exclusively with children, like teaching, reading and playing), and secondary child-care time (time spent doing other activities, such as
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.011 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".