Remittances as a Currency of Care: A Focus on ‘Twice Migrants’ among the Indian Diaspora in Australia
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In this paper we examine remittances as a currency of care from the perspective of migrants among the Indian diaspora in Australia. We focus particularly on seven “twice migrants” from Malaysia, Singapore, Kenya and the United Kingdom, and two cases where direct migration of the parental generation from India has led to multiple migration for their children as they moved from Australia to the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. These nine cases of multiple migration enable us to delve into the greater complexity and longer history of migration. The paper thus adds a historical dimension to literature on migration, analyzing changes across generations to remittances and the transnational family. Following Fischer and Tronto (1990) we distinguish between “caring about,” “taking care,” “caregiving” and “care-receiving.” Occasional and regular remittances, together with regular communication, visits home and gifts, express the migrants’ continued “caring about” and “taking care” of the family left behind, usually the parents. The money sent home helps facilitate “caregiving,” usually by the non-migrant siblings. The social value of money as a medium of relationships and belonging has been transmitted across generations, though parents are less likely to want to receive such care in Australia. Moreover, there are tensions inherent in caring. From the migrants’ perspective, these tensions revolve around an inadequate valuing of the money sent home and conflicts around inheritance. Our focus on multiple migrants balances the linear notions of migration implicit in the literature on migration, remittances and the transnational family. Over time, the definition of kin in the transnational family narrows as there is a dilution of family communication. With multiple migrations, there are possible shifts in the geographic centre of the transnational family. As the younger generation migrates further, this dilution is accompanied by a greater diffusion of the transnational family.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.007 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".