Forward mapping of solar energetic proton distributions through the geomagnetic field
Bibliographic record
Abstract
During solar proton events, large ejections of energetic protons spread throughout the interplanetary medium, penetrate the geomagnetic field, and are deposited in the upper polar atmosphere where they play important roles in its physical and chemical processes. We develop a model of direct proton propagation through a static geomagnetic field based on a generalized leapfrog method and validate it through comparison with Störmer theory. We then apply the algorithm to two ideal cases representing the late and early phases of a solar particle event, for proton energies of 10, 100, and 1000 MeV. The late‐phase case is represented by an isotropic infinite bath of protons surrounding the magnetosphere; in this case, most protons reaching the polar cap originate within ±20° of the magnetic equatorial plane, with pronounced peaks near ±20°. The early‐phase case is represented by broad, monodirectional proton beams; these sources are highly focused by the geomagnetic field, with all particles mapping to small regions in the polar cap only a few hundred kilometers across, and with low‐energy particles being focused more than higher‐energy ones. Pure dipole and International Geomagnetic Reference Field‐11 magnetic field models lead to very similar fluence patterns in the polar cap, though the latter are somewhat less focused.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".