Trends in occupational and earnings attainments of women immigrants to Canada, 1971-1996
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This study examines the extent to which immigrant women arriving in Canada between the 1960s and the early 1990s were able to attain occupations and earnings equivalent to those of Canadian-born women using a data file created by merging public-use microdata files from Censuses of Canada between 1971 and 1996. We study both changes in country of birth effects on the earnings and occupational status of women aged 25 to 29 immigrating prior to each of the five census years and the experience of successive female immigrant cohorts as they age to determine the extent to which the effects of birthplace on occupational status and earnings change over their careers. In both cases we find a considerable advantage associated with being educated in Canada compared to being educated abroad. For those visible minority immigrants just beginning their careers in Canada, we could find no evidence that more recent cohorts have lower attainments than earlier cohorts, though this was true for some European groups. In our analysis of aging cohorts we find evidence of a tendency for immigrant earnings to converge with those of the Canadian born and for that tendency to be stronger in more recent cohorts.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".