Overvoltage Problems of Small-Scale Generators Connected to Large Systems
Bibliographic record
Abstract
-Electric utility companies and/or government agencies, as well as professional organizations such as IEEE, are formulating interconnection requirements for connecting small distributed or dispersed-resource generation to large utility systems. “Small” typically implies generators up to 30 MW. If the small generator is connected to the distribution system, as is normally the case, then the distribution system will no longer be radial, which requires changes to the protection. Some of the protection-related problems are inadequate coordination, energization with generators out of synchronism, transfer tripping, protection against formation of unintentional islands, overvoltages, etc. This paper discusses transient studies made for the connection of an Independent Power Producer (IPP) to a 138 kV connection point. The results show the overvoltages that can result from outof-step reclosing after a line-to-line fault with ground connection on the transmission line. Solutions are suggested to prevent sustained overvoltages with revised underand overvoltage settings. The proper choice of surge arresters is discussed as well. If the IPP is connected to a distribution system of 13.8 kV, 25 kV or 34.5 kV, the grounding of the neutral of the transformer at the connection point (point of common coupling) will influence the current distribution between the utility and IPP. This will affect the sensitivity of the neutral protection relays.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.004 | 0.011 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.045 | 0.016 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".