The orbital distribution of satellite galaxies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We measure the distribution of velocities for prograde and retrograde satellite galaxies using a combination of published data and new observations for 78 satellites of 63 extremely isolated disc galaxies (169 satellites total). We find that the velocity distribution is non-Gaussian (>99.9 per cent confidence), but that it can be described as the sum of two Gaussians, one of which is broad (σ= 176 ± 15 km s−1), has a mean prograde velocity of 86 ± 30 km s−1, and contains ∼55 per cent of the satellites, while the other is slightly retrograde with a mean velocity of −21 ± 22 km s−1 and σ= 74 ± 18 km s−1 and contains ∼45 per cent of the satellites. Both of these components are present over all projected radii and found in the sample regardless of cuts on primary inclination or satellite disc angle. The double-Gaussian shape, however, becomes more pronounced among satellites of more luminous primaries. We remove the potential dependence of satellite velocity on primary luminosity using the Tully–Fisher relation and still find the velocity distribution to be asymmetric and even more significantly non-Gaussian. The asymmetric velocity distribution demonstrates a connection between the inner, visible disc galaxy, and the kinematics of the outer, dark halo. The reach of this connection, extending even beyond the virial radii, suggests that it is imprinted by the satellite infall pattern and large-scale effects, rather than by higher level dynamical processes in the formation of the central galaxy or late-term evolution of the satellites.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".