The auditory cortex and tinnitus – a review of animal and human studies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Tinnitus is the sound heard in the absence of physical sound sources external or internal to the body. Tinnitus never occurs in isolation; it typically develops after hearing loss, and not infrequently for losses at the higher frequencies not tested in clinical audiology. Furthermore, tinnitus is often accompanied by hyperacusis, i.e. increased loudness sensitivity, which may reflect the central gain change in the auditory system that occurs after hearing loss. I will first review the electrophysiological findings in the thalamus and cortex pertaining to animal research into tinnitus. This will comprise the changes in tonotopic maps, spontaneous firing rates and changes in pairwise neural cross-correlation induced by tinnitus-inducing agents that are commonly used in animal experiments. These are systemic application of sodium salicylate, and noise exposure at levels ranging from those that do not cause a hearing loss, to those that only cause a temporary threshold shift, to those that cause a permanent hearing loss. Following this, I will review neuroimaging and electrophysiological findings in the auditory cortex in humans with tinnitus. The neural substrates of tinnitus derived from animal data do not apply universally, as neither hearing loss nor hyperacusis appear to be necessary conditions for tinnitus to occur in humans. Finally, I will relate the findings in humans to the predictions from animal models of tinnitus. These comparisons indicate that neural correlates of tinnitus can be studied successfully both at the level of animal models and in humans.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.009 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".