Estimation and Analysis of Two-Line Elements for Small Satellites
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper presents an assessment of two-line element sets for one nano- and two micro-satellites in low Earth orbit. Both the publicly available element sets issued by the North American Aerospace Defense Command and element sets estimated from GPS tracking data are assessed. The nanosatellite, which carries an intermittently operated dual-frequency GPS receiver, presents one of the first opportunities to assess two-line-element accuracy for an object measuring only using precise reference orbits. The larger satellites provide continuous GPS coverage as well as insight into the impact of maneuvers and formation flying on two-line element sets. It is found that, overall, the North American Aerospace Defense Command two-line element sets provide reliable position information accurate to a few kilometers for small satellites in low Earth orbit and that, with an arc length similar to the North American Aerospace Defense Command, two-line elements estimated from continuous GPS data or even intermittent GPS data collected sufficiently often can improve the spread of five-day along-track propagation errors from 10 km down to 2 km for a nanosatellite.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".