Broadband parametric imaging of breaking ocean waves
Bibliographic record
Abstract
An acoustic array was deployed in the near-surface layer of a fetch-limited coastal inlet to image breaking waves using only the sound radiated in the band (400 Hz to 2000 Hz) from the breaking region. The breakers were assumed to possess predominantly spiller characteristics. For this frequency band, the wavelength of sound in bubble-free water is much larger than the surface wave height and the depth of the breaker bubble plume, so both were considered insignificant. The 15-element array was configured as a sparse horizontal cross with an 8 m aperture, bottom moored, and positioned nominally 3 m beneath the surface. Propagation from the source to the array elements assumed dipole sources, an acoustically flat surface, and an acoustically thin bubble plume. The radiating region was parameterized by a broadband two-dimensional Gaussian profile: information from up to six independent frequencies was combined to yield a maximum-likelihood image. Analysis shows that the images align closely with the wind and can be observed moving downwind with a speed roughly equal to 70% of the phase speed of the dominant wind waves. A model of acoustic source strength which is linear in log frequency is found fit the data reasonably well, and model parameters are provided for a single wind speed. Unlike other imaging experiments, this technique provides measurements of the size and shape of the bubble-creation region at or near the peak of the radiated autospectrum.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".