Leslie A. Schwalm . Emancipation's Diaspora: Race and Reconstruction in the Upper Midwest . (The John Hope Franklin Series in African American History and Culture.) Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . 2009 . Pp. xii, 387. Cloth $65.00, paper $24.95.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
For a region including few blacks, the Upper Midwest states of Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin in the late nineteenth century have yielded a rich historiographical lode to the persistent and wide-ranging explorations of Leslie A. Schwalm. Tracing the fortunes of the African-American migrants who arrived during the Civil War, this study sheds new light on Reconstruction as a national phenomenon, race relations in a supposedly racially liberal society, and gender relations within the communities the migrants created. The book begins by demonstrating that, while the 1787 Northwest Ordinance in theory defined freedom as the normative status in the antebellum Upper Midwest, white racism made a form of bondage for blacks too often the practice. Through a heritable form of indentured servitude, slave-owning privileges for army officers, and loose adoption laws, whites succeeded in holding African Americans to long terms of service. All three states disfranchised blacks and banned them from jury service; Iowa also adopted statutes prohibiting black settlement, testimony against whites, militia service, practice of law and intermarriage with whites, and requiring school segregation. “Racism,” Schwalm concludes, “was not imposed on Midwestern whites by outsiders; it was integral to the region's history and development” (p. 29).
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.004 | 0.006 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.026 | 0.011 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".