Hurricane Sandy storm surges observed by HY‐2A satellite altimetry and tide gauges
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Hurricane Sandy made landfall to the northeast of Atlantic City, New Jersey at 23:30 UTC on 29 October 2012 and caused large storm surges and devastating flooding along the New Jersey and New York coasts. Here we combine sea surface height measurements from the HaiYang‐2A (HY‐2A) satellite altimeter with coastal tide‐gauge data to study the features of the Hurricane Sandy storm surges. The HY‐2A altimeter captured the cross‐shelf profile of surge at the time of Sandy's peak surge, with a surge magnitude of about 1.83 m at the coast and a cross‐shelf decaying scale of 68 km. The altimetric surge magnitude agrees approximately with tide‐gauge estimate of 1.73 m at nearby Montauk. Further analysis suggests that continental shelf waves were generated during the passage of Sandy. The continental shelf wave observed by altimetry has a propagating speed of 6.5 m/s. The post landfall free shelf wave at Atlantic City observed by tide gauges has a propagating phase speed of 6.8 m/s and cross‐shelf e‐folding scale of 75 km. In contrast, the post landfall sea level oscillation at Montauk is not associated with a continental shelf wave. The study indicates that satellite altimetry is capable of observing and useful for understanding features of storm surges, complementing existing coastal tide gauges.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".