Time-resolved non-contact fluorescence diffuse optical tomography measurements with ultra-fast time-correlated single photon counting avalanche photodiodes
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The design and fabrication of time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) avalanche photodiodes (APDs) and associated quenching circuits have made significant progresses in recent years. APDs with temporal resolutions comparable to microchannel plate photomultiplier tubes (MCP-PMTs) are now available. MCP-PMTs were until these progresses the best TCSPC detectors with timing resolutions down to 30ps. APDs can now achieve these resolutions at a fraction of the cost. Work is under way to make the manufacturing of TCSPC APDs compatible with standard electronics fabrication practices. This should allow to further reduce their cost and render them easier to integrate in complex multi-channel TCSPC electronics, as needed in diffuse optical tomography (DOT) systems. Even if their sensitive area is much smaller than that of the ubiquitous PMT used in TCSPC, we show that with appropriate selection of optical components, TCSPC APDs can be used in time-domain DOT. To support this, we present experimental data and calculations clearly demonstrating that comparable measurements can be obtained with APDs and PMTs. We are, to our knowledge, the first group using APDs in TD DOT, in particular in non-contact TD fluorescence DOT.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".