Very low-voltage operation capability of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor ring oscillators and logic gates
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Operation of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) logic gates at low supply voltages down to 100mV and ring oscillators down to 67mV is experimentally investigated. The measured voltage transfer characteristics of CMOS inverters and logic gates are explained using the subthreshold operation of MOS transistors. Robust control of ring oscillators allows for a tuning range of six decades in frequency with excellent sensitivity as low as 75mV per frequency decade at low voltages in the range from 0.2 to 0.5V, when body biasing of the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) is also used. For the present state-of-the-art CMOS, the simple digital CMOS cells can operate properly at supply voltages down to 0.2V, but to achieve operation at lower voltages, additional circuitry is needed to maintain the matching between p- and n-MOSFETs, and the circuit complexity increases. Nevertheless, the experiments with ring oscillators demonstrated good performance of CMOS circuits down to the physical limit of two to three times the thermal voltage, while logic gates with stacked transistors need a supply of approximately four to six times the thermal voltage.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".