Diffuse, Nonthermal X‐Ray Emission from the Galactic Star Cluster Westerlund 1
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We present the diffuse X-ray emission identified in Chandra observations of the young, massive Galactic star cluster Westerlund 1. After removing pointlike X-ray sources down to a completeness limit of ≈2 × 10 31 ergs s -1 , we identify (3 ± 1) × 10 34 ergs s -1 (2-8 keV) of diffuse emission. The spatial distribution of the emission can be described as a slightly elliptical Lorentzian core with a half-width at half-maximum along the major axis of 25'' ± 1'', similar to the distribution of point sources in the cluster, plus a 5' halo of extended emission. The spectrum of the diffuse emission is dominated by a hard continuum component that can be described as a kT ≳ 3 keV thermal plasma that has a low iron abundance (≲0.3 solar) or as nonthermal emission that could be stellar light that is inverse Compton scattered by MeV electrons. Only 5% of the flux is produced by a kT ≈ 0.7 keV plasma. The low luminosity of the thermal emission and the lack of a 6.7 keV iron line suggest that ≲40,000 unresolved stars with masses between 0.3 and 2 M ☉ are present in the cluster, fewer than previously estimated. Moreover, the flux in the diffuse emission is a factor of several lower than would be expected from a supersonically expanding cluster wind, and there is no evidence for thermal remnants produced by supernovae. Less than 10 -5 of the mechanical luminosity of the cluster is dissipated as 2-8 keV X-rays, leaving a large amount of energy that either is radiated at other wavelengths, is dissipated beyond the bounds of our image, or escapes into the intergalactic medium.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".