Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide in the Cambrian Mount Simon Sandstone: Regional storage capacity, site characterization, and large-scale injection feasibility, Michigan Basin
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The Mount Simon Sandstone (Cambrian) is recognized as an important deep saline reservoir with potential to serve as a target for geological sequestration in the Midwest, United States. The Mount Simon Sandstone in Michigan consists primarily of sandy clastics and grades upward into the more argillaceous Eau Claire Formation, which serves as a regional confining zone. The Mount Simon Sandstone lies at depths from about 914 m (3000 ft) to more than 4572 m (15,000 ft) in the Michigan Basin and ranges in thickness from more than 396 m (1300 ft) to near zero adjacent to basement highs. The Mount Simon Sandstone has variable reservoir quality characteristics dependent on sedimentary facies variations and depth-related diagenesis. On the basis of well-log-derived net porosity from wells in the Michigan Basin, estimates of total geological sequestration capacity were determined to be in excess of 29 billion metric tons (Gt). Most of this capacity is located in the southwestern part of the state. Numerical simulations of carbon dioxide (CO2) injection were conducted using the subsurface transport over multiple phases-water-CO2-salt (STOMP-WCS) simulator code to assess the potential for geologic sequestration into the Mount Simon saline reservoir in the area of Holland, Ottawa County, Michigan. At this locality, the reservoir is more than 260 m (850 ft) thick and has a minimum of 30 m (100 ft) of net porosity. The simulation used a CO2 injection period of 20 yr at a rate of 600,000 metric tons (t)/yr, followed by an equilibration period of 280 yr, for a total of 300 yr. After 20 yr, the total amount of CO2 injected is 12 million metric tons (Mt); after 300 yr, 9.8 Mt is modeled to remain as a free-phase (nonentrapped) supercritical CO2, 0.7 Mt is capillary-entrapped (residual) supercritical CO2, and 1.5 Mt dissolved into the brine. The injected CO2 spread to an area with a radius of 1.8 km (1.12 mi) after 20 yr of injection at a single well and to an area with a radius of 3.8 km (2.36 mi) after 300 yr. The low-permeability Eau Claire retards the upward migration of CO2. Pressures during injection at the bottom of the cap rock (1540.5-m [5054-ft] depth) are well below the fracture pressure limit of 27.9 MPa (4046.6 psi), assuming a fracture pressure gradient of 0.018 MPa/m (0.8 psi/ft) caused by the high permeability of the Mount Simon Sandstone.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".