The U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act: A Study of Its Effectiveness
Bibliographic record
Abstract
T he passage of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) by the U.S. government in 1977 was a watershed event in the fight against corruption in the postwar era. Its criminalization of bribery on the part of U.S. citizens and corporations conducting business overseas, and its provisions for mandatory self-regulation through internal control mechanisms, maintenance of transaction records, and other accounting practices made it unique: between the passage of the Act in 1977 and the adoption of the OECD anti-corruption convention in 1997 no other nation initiated similar legislation. Recent studies, however, raise significant questions about the efficacy of this American initiative. Concerns have taken a number of forms. In 1999, Transparency International released the results of a survey ranking nineteen leading exporting countries by the degree to which their companies were perceived to be paying bribes abroad. The United States ranked ninth of nineteen countries in the resulting ‘‘Bribe Payers Index.’’ Accompanying the United States in ninth position was Germany, a country where, until very recently, bribes paid to
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.007 | 0.016 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.004 | 0.007 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".