Nitrates in ice: uptake; dielectric response by the layered capacitor method
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Ice columns of 0.200.25 m length and 0.038 m diameter were grown in the laboratory from dilute solutions (10 5 to 10 2 N) of potassium, sodium, or ammonium nitrate at a constant freezing rate of 0.002 m h 1 and stirring at 300 rpm. The distribution coefficient was computed at ~0.015 m intervals as the ratio of nitrate concentration in the melted ice and in the liquid phase as a function of interface position. The average distribution coefficients were (2.25 ± 0.55) × 10 4 for the potassium and sodium nitrate, and (6.1 ± 1.4) × 10 3 for the ammonium nitrate samples about a 27-fold increase. These results are in line with other large anions such as sulfate and methanesulfonate that were previously investigated. The dielectric relaxation spectrum of ice slices (~0.012 m thick and sandwiched between thin fluoroplastic foils) was measured between 1 and 85°C at frequencies from 1 Hz to 100 kHz with a lock-in amplifier technique. First, the ice response was recovered from the (MaxwellWagner) layered capacitor. The dielectric relaxation ranges were then separated and their characteristic parameters computed. The complex conductivity (Grant plot) and the conductivity frequency-response plot have been the most useful tools for this purpose. Both (alkali-metal and ammonium nitrate) sample groups exhibit the Debye dispersion of polar molecules so characteristic for ice regardless of impurity content. There is also a dispersion range at lower frequencies, and a static or quasi-static conductivity. In the alkali-metal nitrates the low-frequency dispersion is a prominent space-charge dispersion, and the temperature-dependent interaction between orientational and ionic point defects in the ice lattice leads to the conductivity crossover phenomenon. Ammonium greatly reduces the ionic lattice defects responsible for space charge and static conductivity; there is no crossover. Both the Debye dispersion and the crossover support the concept of co-operative responses by the polar molecules making up the ice substance to physico-chemical stimuli. PACS Nos.: 61.72, 77.22G, 77.22J, 81.30F
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".