Cheap Maids and Nannies: How Low-skilled immigration is changing the labor supply of high-skilled American women
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Low-skilled immigrants, who have in recent decades doubled their share in the US labor force, represent a signi…cant fraction of the labor employed in service sectors, particularly in close substitutes of household work like housekeeping, gardening and babysitting services. This paper studies whether the increased supply of low skilled immigrants, has led highskilled women, who have the highest opportunity cost of their time, to change their time use decisions. We …nd evidence that low-skilled immigration has increased hours worked by women with a graduate degree, especially those with a professional degree or a PhD, and those with children. The estimated magnitudes suggest that the low-skilled immigration ‡ow of the 1990s increased by 7 and 33 minutes a week the average time of market work of women with a Master’s degree and women with a professional degree or a PhD, respectively. Consistently, we …nd a decrease in the time highly skilled women spend in household work and an increase in their reported expenditures on housekeeping services. We also …nd that the fraction of women in this group working more than 50 (and 60) hours a week increases with low-skilled immigration, but that labor force participation decreases at the same time. [�] [�]
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".