Choosing to be different (or not): personal income taxes at the subnational level in Canada and Spain
Bibliographic record
Abstract
. This paper analyzes the evolution of fiscal federalism in Spain and Canada, focusing on the exercise of normative powers on the Personal Income Tax (PIT). This is done by presenting and comparing the evolution of the use of taxing powers by two sets of subnational governments: the Canadian Provinces and the Spanish Autonomous Communities on the PIT. This tax is chosen because it is one of the most politically visible taxes.The main interest of this comparison lays in the fact that, despite the prevailing differences in the constitutional and institutional backgrounds of these countries, some of the outcomes are similar or at least comparable and there is reason to believe that it will continue to be that way. The paper is divided in three parts. First, the constitutional, legal and institutional framework of both countries are presented, by paying special attention to the elements relevant to taxation. Second we examine the outcomes in both countries, paying the most attention to the field of PIT. Third we compare and contrast these uses.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.004 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".