Bibliographic record
Abstract
The United States was a very different country in 2005 than it was in 1980. It had changed politically, socially, and demographically. Its economy was structured very differently, with workers facing vastly different job options and life prospects. The position the United States held in the world order had also changed a great deal over this quarter century. This chapter outlines some of the key features of the changes that have occurred since 1980. Demographics The United States was a considerably older, more ethnically diverse country in 2005 than it was in 1980. The share of the population that was older than age sixty-five had risen by 10 percent (from 11.1 percent in 1980 to 12.2 percent in 2005), while the share of the population that was younger than age twenty had fallen by more than 12 percent (from 31.7 percent in 1980 to 27.8 percent in 2005). However, this demographic shift is relatively minor compared to the aging of the baby boom generation, the massive group of 79 million people born between 1946 and 1964. In 1980, the baby boomers, ranging in age from sixteen to thirty-four, were the young people just entering the labor force and forming their own families. In 2005, the baby boom cohort had matured, and some of its oldest members, at fifty-nine years old, had already reached retirement age. The aging of this huge cohort has changed the character of the country.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.017 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".