Bibliographic record
Abstract
The pharyngeal muscles are essential for effective lung ventilation because they help maintain an open upper airspace for the unhindered passage of air into the lungs. Sleep, especially rapid-eye-movement sleep, however, causes fundamental modifications of pharyngeal muscle tone and reflex responses that in normal individuals lead to airway narrowing and hypoventilation. In individuals with already anatomically narrow upper airways, these effects of sleep predispose them to inspiratory flow limitation (hypopneas), airway closure, and obstructive sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea is a common disorder affecting at least 2% to 4% of North American adults and is associated with serious clinical, social, and economic consequences. This review addresses the physiology and pathophysiology of obstructive sleep apnea, hypopneas, and snoring, that is, the full spectrum of the most common sleep-related breathing events involving the upper airway. Specifically, the anatomical features of the upper airway that are important to its mechanical properties and degree of collapsibility are reviewed. The sites of airway narrowing and closure and the implications for common treatments strategies are also discussed. This article also focuses on the neuromuscular control mechanisms operating in wakefulness and sleep that influence pharyngeal muscle tone and upper airway collapsibility. The effects of sleep on the reflex mechanisms that normally operate to protect the upper airspace from suction collapse during breathing are also addressed. Throughout this review, these mechanisms are discussed with an emphasis on understanding the physiology and pathophysiology of sleep-disordered breathing and obstructive sleep apnea.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".