A Comprehensive and Accurate Analytical SPAD Model for Circuit Simulation
Why this work is in the frame
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
The single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is an attractive photosensor due to its high sensitivity and low dead time. In this paper, a comprehensive, accurate analytical SPAD circuit simulation model is proposed and implemented in Verilog-A hardware description language. It shows great application universality and is fully compatible with mainstream commercial circuit simulators. This model incorporates all important operating features of the SPAD. Most importantly, to the best of our knowledge, it is the first time that the band-to-band tunneling mechanism and the temporal dependence of after-pulsing probability are included in an SPAD circuit simulation model. The parameter extraction processes from interavalanche time measurement of a free-running SPAD device are discussed. The simulation results indicate that the proposed model works well. In addition, the primary dark counts from the model are validated against the measurement results. A maximum relative error of 8.7% is observed at 20 °C with an excess voltage of 0.5 V. The accuracy of this paper can be greatly improved by using more accurate physical parameters available from the SPAD fabrication vendor.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it