Cost-of-Illness Studies: a Five-Country Methodological Comparison
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Produced in different countries from the National Health Accounts* (NHAs), cost-of-illness* (COI) studies estimate the distribution of health care expenditure across major diagnostic categories. The use of equivalent methodologies permitted a comparative COI study between the five countries retained (Australia, Canada, France, Germany and the Netherlands) but differences in health care system structures and national accounting rules somewhat jeopardised total comparability. In all five countries studied, health care expenditure (hospitals, physicians, dentists and prescribed medicines) is predominated by three major diagnostic categories: cardiovascular diseases, digestive diseases and mental disorders. If in the future these comparative studies are to become effective tools in the understanding and improvement of health systems and provide meaningful international comparisons of health system performance, it would be advisable to adopt a common NHA accounting nomenclature and to elaborate institutionalised and standardised methodological rules for national COI studies.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.251 | 0.327 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.004 | 0.013 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.014 | 0.012 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.004 | 0.008 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; the direct Gemma label and the distilled Codex classifier agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".