Regulation, Trade Agreements, Consolidation and Integration in International Banking
Bibliographic record
Abstract
While a significant proportion of deregulation of banking markets was implemented in the 1980s there was a closely associated re-regulation in the form of international banking industry accords. The European Union member states’ financial markets were principally reformed by legislation, that is, through directives and recommendations. A single European financial market is due to be in place in 2005. The principle of home country control was introduced along with the equalisation of banking activities by specifying the permitted banking activities. By allowing banks from other member states to provide commercial and investment banking services in other member states, universal banking was effectively introduced as the standard type of banking, as member states were obliged to allow their indigenous banks to provide the same range of services or they would have been at a competitive disadvantage. The North American free trade agreement, NAFTA, was signed by the United States, Canada and Mexico. A separate Annex on Financial Services was agreed as part of the Uruguay round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT, in the General Agreement on Trade in Services, GATS. Along with liberalisation in trade in banking services reducing the level of barriers to market access by foreign banks and the reform of banking systems through deregulation and re-regulation there has been the accompanied process of securitisation, which has progressed the process of globalisation and integration in banking. The recent increase in mergers between and acquisition of banks within and between countries has been mostly due to the single financial market and economic and monetary union in Europe, de-regulation in the United States and de-regulation, as well as, restructuring in Japan. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.008 | 0.010 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.004 | 0.021 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.011 | 0.008 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.005 | 0.006 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.007 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".