Bibliographic record
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The essence of federalism is the decentralization of decision making over some set of economic issues to lower levels of government. Decentralization is a very broad concept. All nations – even so-called unitary ones, with one main level of government that oversees all others – must of necessity engage in some sort of decentralization. For example, public services delivered to persons must at least be administered by agencies close to those being served. Thus, hospitals and schools must be administered by managers who have some degree of discretion over expenditure decisions; local services such as sanitation, water, recreation, and garbage are almost always delivered by local governments; welfare assistance and services are delivered through agencies employing social workers; and so on. What distinguishes federal nations from unitary nations is that the decentralization involves giving significant legislative authority to lower levels of government, as opposed to simply administrative authority. This definition is obviously rather loose. Nations that regard themselves as unitary states nonetheless allow local or regional governments considerable discretion in designing and delivering some public services. On the other hand, in some federal countries, central governments may have considerable power to override or direct legislative decisions of lower-level governments. Indeed, some countries that do not describe themselves as federations (e.g., South Africa) function as effectively as most federal countries do. These are largely semantic issues with which we need not be unduly concerned.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.010 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".