Minerva’s Allies: States, Secretariats, and Individuals in the Emergence of the Responsibility to Protect Norm
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In September 1999, reflecting on the Rwandan genocide and NATO’s Kosovo campaign, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan challenged the UN General Assembly (GA) to come to terms with the question of humanitarian intervention. He sparked intense debate, but consensus proved elusive as ardent supporters of humanitarian intervention clashed with staunch defenders of state sovereignty. One year later, Canada announced a new initiative designed to bridge the impasse: the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS). The Commission’s 2001 report sought to reframe the issue of humanitarian intervention in terms of an international “responsibility to protect” civilians from large-scale loss of life or ethnic cleansing if their own states proved unwilling or unable to do so (ICISS 2001a). Despite initial setbacks, this notion — often referred to as R2P — has achieved considerable international recognition, culminating in its unanimous endorsement (in modified form) at the 2005 UN World Summit. Although important components of the ICISS report were sacrificed to secure this endorsement (Coleman, forthcoming) and serious challenges to the norm’s implementation remain, this was a remarkable case of international norm building. R2P shaped contemporary debates about military intervention in Darfur (for example, Williams and Bellamy 2005), was reaffirmed by the Security Council in 2006 (UNSC 2006, §4), and in 2011 the Council invoked R2P in its responses to crises in Côte d’Ivoire and Libya (UNSC 2011a; UNSC 2011b; UNSC 2011c). These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.012 | 0.019 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.018 | 0.031 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.014 | 0.011 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.016 |
| Research integrity | 0.007 | 0.009 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.009 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".