Bibliographic record
Abstract
The opposition between the left and the right did not emerge spontaneously. The debate as we know it took shape gradually, out of the protracted conflict over the construction of the modern state system. With the rise of liberalism, a world of overlapping hierarchies was gradually challenged by a new one defined by the intrinsic equality of all able-bodied adult men. Disagreements about the exact meaning of this newly affirmed common citizenship were unavoidable, however, and they became inherent in most, if not all, public deliberations. This chapter retraces the evolution of the opposition between the left and the right over the period between the American Revolution in 1776 and the end of the Second World War in 1945. In this long era of transition, the modern state as we know it, a legitimate bureaucratic and political apparatus presiding over a relatively vast territory, came into being. So did the modern state system, conceived as an international arrangement of stable relationships between sovereign units. The period encompassed here is rich in events which obviously cannot be analyzed in any exhaustive manner. Our aim is simply to offer a better understanding of the ubiquity of left–right debates, by showing how they shaped political views over a range of critical questions across the world. Four themes, central to this period when the modern state and state system were built, are considered: democracy, peace and war, capitalism and socialism, and the colonial enterprise.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.010 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.006 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".